Alexander

In the 4th century BC, the traditional Greek city-states had been weakened by decades of warfare, especially the Peloponnesian War and the conflicts that followed it. Athens, Sparta and Thebes had all experienced periods of dominance, but none was able to establish lasting control over Greece.

Meanwhile, the kingdom of Macedon was becoming increasingly powerful under Philip II, Alexander’s father. Philip reorganized the Macedonian army, strengthened the monarchy and gradually brought most of the Greek city-states under his influence. His victory at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC marked a decisive turning point, effectively ending the political independence of many Greek states and placing Macedon at the head of a wider Greek alliance.

At the same time, the Achaemenid Persian Empire remained the dominant power in the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia. Although still vast and wealthy, it had experienced internal revolts, dynastic tensions and regional instability. The memory of the earlier Persian invasions of Greece in the 5th century BC also remained strong in Greek political culture.

Alexander inherited both his father’s military system and his plan for a campaign against Persia. His conquests destroyed the Achaemenid Empire and created a new political world linking Greece, Egypt, the Near East, Central Asia and parts of India.

The most important consequence of his campaigns was the beginning of the Hellenistic age. Greek language and culture spread across a vast area, but they also interacted with Egyptian, Persian and other eastern traditions. New cities, trade networks and political centres emerged, creating a more interconnected Mediterranean and Near Eastern world that would shape the following centuries.