Thomas Paine (1737–1809) was an English-born political activist, philosopher, writer, and revolutionary whose ideas profoundly influenced both the American and French Revolutions. He is best known as the author of *Common Sense*, one of the most influential political pamphlets ever written, and is regarded as one of the intellectual Founding Fathers of the United States.
Paine was born on February 9, 1737, in Thetford, Norfolk, England. The son of a Quaker corset-maker, he received a modest education and left school at an early age. During his youth he worked in a variety of occupations, including as a sailor, shopkeeper, and tax officer. In 1759 he married Mary Lambert, who died together with their infant child shortly after childbirth. After several unsuccessful business ventures and financial difficulties, he remarried in 1771, though the marriage later ended in divorce.
While working as an excise officer, Paine became involved in campaigns for better wages and working conditions. In 1772 he wrote *The Case of the Officers of Excise*, his first significant political work. Two years later, after losing his job and facing financial hardship, he moved to London, where he met Benjamin Franklin. Impressed by his intelligence and writing ability, Franklin encouraged him to seek a new life in America and provided him with letters of introduction.
Paine arrived in Philadelphia in 1774 and soon became involved in colonial politics. In January 1776 he published *Common Sense*, a powerful pamphlet arguing that the American colonies should break completely from British rule and establish an independent republic. The work became an immediate bestseller and played a crucial role in shaping public opinion in favor of independence. Many historians consider it one of the most influential publications in American history.
During the American Revolution, Paine continued to support the patriot cause through his famous series of essays known as *The American Crisis*. The opening words, “These are the times that try men's souls,” became one of the most celebrated lines of the Revolutionary era. He later served as secretary to the Congressional Committee on Foreign Affairs and participated in diplomatic efforts involving France, America's most important ally during the war.
In recognition of his services to the Revolution, Paine received land and financial support from the new American government. He returned to Europe in the late 1780s and became an enthusiastic supporter of the French Revolution. In 1791 and 1792 he published 'Rights of Man', a defense of the Revolution and a powerful attack on hereditary monarchy and aristocratic privilege. The book became immensely popular but led the British government to charge him with seditious libel, effectively forcing him into exile.
While in France, Paine was elected to the National Convention despite not speaking French fluently. However, during the Reign of Terror he was arrested by political opponents and imprisoned for nearly a year. He narrowly escaped execution and was eventually released in 1794 through the intervention of James Monroe, the American ambassador to France.
During this period, Paine wrote *The Age of Reason*, a controversial work criticizing organized religion and advocating deism—the belief in a creator known through reason rather than religious institutions. The book provoked fierce criticism from both religious and political opponents and damaged his popularity, particularly in the United States.
Paine returned to America in 1802, but the political climate had changed. Once celebrated as a revolutionary hero, he was increasingly marginalized because of his religious views and outspoken opinions. He spent his final years writing and defending his ideas, but largely lived in poverty and isolation.
Thomas Paine died on June 8, 1809, in New York City. Only a handful of people attended his funeral. Although he died unpopular and largely forgotten, his writings would later be recognized as some of the most influential works in the history of democracy, republican government, and human rights.
